Studying defensive behaviour in ecology is fundamental to understanding the ability of animals to adapt and survive predation. Defensive behaviour is therefore directly subjected to unidirectional selective natural forces. Thus, animals, especially small ones, usually use various defensive strategies to escape predators. Depending on when they are used, two types of defence mechanisms against predators can be distinguished. These are the primary and secondary defence mechanisms (Barnard, 2004). While primary defence mechanisms (e.g. inconspicuous or camouflage behaviour) are employed by organisms to escape detection by predators, secondary defence mechanisms are used by prey after being detected and are hence used to improve the probability of survival against predator attack (Robinson 1969; Edmunds 1974). One of the most evolved defensive strategy is morphological adaptations to rapidly deliver venomous attack to predator. Thus, some had developed fast venom delivery systems as shooting venomous nematocysts by cnidarian or barbs through shells by cone shells, other taxa release defensive venom (e.g. spiders, scolopendra and hymenopterans), others, like snakes and scorpions are able to extend a section of their body at their target in one quick strike in order to inject venom.
In scorpions rapid striking movements are driven directly by the muscles. As terrestrial ectotherms, environmental temperatures influence various biological processes in scorpions such as growth rate, immune function and muscles performance (Autumn & de Nardo, 1995; Mondal & Rai, 2001). Therefore, it plays an important role by influencing both hunting ability and predator avoidance through sprinting (Bauwens et al., 1995) and striking (Carlson and Rowe, 2009).
Another factor that plays a major role in scorpion defensive behaviour is maintaining a sufficient venom supply in order to avoid lost prey capture opportunities and reduce defensive ability (Currier et al., 2012; Haight and Tschinkel, 2003; Hayes, 2008). Venom quantity that an animal possesses is influenced by ultimate factors such as prey type, prey size, and rates of prey encounter and venom regeneration (Mirtschin et al., 2002).
In the present study, we shift our attention to examine the defensive behaviour of scorpion Buthus atlantis. We investigated how factors like temperature, type of prey and threatening conditions may influence stinging behaviour, venom expenditure and venom regeneration.
El Joud, Y., El Bouazzaoui, A., El-Ghali, S., Laghzaoui, E., Toulon, O., Ait Larradia, M., Elmourid, A., Ait Hamdan, Y., Rhazi, M., Kahime, K., El Mouden, E. H., Merzouki, M., & El Hidan, M. A. (2024). Assessing the effects of temperature, diet and threat conditions on defensive behaviour and venom regeneration in scorpion (Buthus atlantis). Journal of Thermal Biology, 103966. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtherbio.2024.103966